AP English Literature and Composition: 2006â2007 Workshop Materials 3 Special Focus: The Importance of Tone Introduction Carol Jago Santa Monica High School Santa Monica, California Helping students tune their ears to a page of text is one of the most difficult tasks AP English Literature and Composition teachers face.
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Published Online:14 Aug 2013https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2013.0031
AbstractBackground: Parent-focused interventions may help to reduce youth screen-viewing (SV). This review synthesized current information on the links between parenting styles, parenting practices, and youth SV with a focus on measurement. Methods: A systematic review of electronic databases was conducted. Results: In all, 29 of 1189 studies met the inclusion criteria. Parenting practices were divided into rule and nonrule-based practices. Seven rules: (1) Limits on total time (n studies=23); (2) limits on time of day (n=7); (3) content restriction (n=11); (4) mealtime rules (n=2); (5) parental supervision (n=3); (6) contingent screentime (n=3); and (7) no-TV policy (n=1) were reported. Two nonrule-based practices were reported: Co-viewing (n=6) and encouragement to view (n=2). Three studies (10.3%) provided information on parenting styles. Only 12 studies (41.4%) provided information on the reliability/validity of the outcome measure, 15 (51.7%) studies provided information on the reliability/validity of the parenting measure, and 6 (20.7%) provided information on the reliability/validity of both outcome and exposure measures. Conclusions: There is mixed evidence that parenting styles and media-related parenting practices are associated with youth SV. The assessment of parental influence of youth media use is hampered by the diversity of measures that have been used. There is a need for new measures that assess a range of media parenting practices that are relevant to multiple forms of SV. IntroductionAdult screen-viewing (SV) time (TV viewing, computer game time, and internet use) has been associated with higher levels of adult obesity, type 2 diabetes, and all-cause mortality.1,2 Among youth, SV has been associated with an increased risk of obesity, elevated levels of cardiovascular risk factors, and poor mental well-being.3â9 Recent evidence suggests that SV patterns track from childhood to adulthood, indicating that reducing youth SV is likely to be important for current and future disease reduction.10 The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children's total media time should be limited to 1â2 hours of quality programming per day.11 Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) indicated that 33% of youth exceeded the upper threshold of the AAP TV viewing guidelines.12 A number of national bodies have identified reducing youth SV as a key public health objective.13,14 The mediating variable model suggests that behavior change is facilitated by manipulation of the factors that are associated with SV.15 As such, identifying potential intermediate or âmediatingâ variables and how they may be associated with SV is a critical element of designing behavior change interventions. A number of studies have shown that parent and child SV patterns are related, with higher parental SV associated with higher child SV,16,17 but it is not clear what factors contribute to these associations. To change behavior, more information is needed about how parental influence is manifested. These influences are likely to fall into one of two categoriesâparenting style and/or parenting practices including co-viewing. Co-viewing refers to children and parents engaging in SV together.17 Parenting styles describe how a parent communicates with his/her child.18 Four parenting styles have been defined: Authoritarian (demand obedience), authoritative (use reasoning), permissive (acquiesce to child's demands), and uninvolved.18,19 Different parenting styles affect the behavior of children. For example, authoritative parenting has been associated with greater consumption of fruit and vegetables amongst youth20,21 and permissive parenting styles have been associated with higher levels of physical activity (PA) amongst youth, in the United Kingdom22 and the United States.23 This suggests that parenting styles may affect energy-balance behaviors differently. Parenting practices describe context-specific behaviors, such as what a parent does to reduce child SV.24,25 A range of different parenting practices including limiting SV time, only allowing screentime at certain times of day, and content restriction have been studied. It is not clear, however, what the patterns of associations between parenting practices, parenting styles, and youth SV are. This information would be helpful in identifying variables to target in future interventions. There is currently no synthesis of information on what parenting styles and practices have been assessed in relation to youth SV and the patterns of evidence linking particular practices to SV behaviors. Equally, to the best of our knowledge, there has been no attempt to integrate current evidence on the validity and reliability of the parenting styles and practice measures. Without such knowledge, it is difficult to interpret the associations between parenting practices/styles and SV. Therefore, information is needed on the associations that have been examined, the validity and reliability of the measures used to examine those associations, and the current gaps in the measurement literature that require further work. To address these issues, a systematic review was conducted. The review was designed to answer the following research questions:
MethodsA systematic search of seven databases (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), EMBASE, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS), MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, and Web of Science) was conducted in January, 2012, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.26 A combination of keywords was used, including âchildâ, âadolescentâ, âparentâ, âstyleâ, âpracticesâ, âmediationâ, âtelevisionâ, âvideo gamesâ, and âcomputerâ. (Because there were semantic differences between search engines' definitions of key words, alternatives were used, e.g., âyouthâ rather than âadolescentâ, âdisciplineâ opposed to âpracticeâ). After initial screening, reference lists were manually examined to ensure the literature was exhaustively searched. Inclusion and Exclusion CriteriaAll peer-reviewed studies examining the relationship between parenting practices and/or parenting styles and child or adolescent SV were included within the review. There was no restriction on the publication date of the articles. Searches were conducted in English. Studies were excluded if they: (1) Did not examine either parenting practices or parenting styles in relation to SV; or (2) examined only a narrowly defined element of SV (e.g., viewing of particular content or visits to certain Internet sites). Measures assessing the presence of TV sets in children's bedrooms or eating meals while watching TV were not considered to be parenting practices because the absence of a TV set in a child's bedroom, or whether a child eats while SV, does not necessarily indicate the presence of a rule. Screening and Data AbstractionDuplicate articles were removed prior to screening. Screening and data abstraction were undertaken by two reviewers. Titles and abstracts were reviewed to identify potential articles to include. Full texts of identified papers were screened to identify whether the article should be included in the review. Data from included articles were then independently entered into a purpose-designed data abstraction form. The form contained basic details on the study (sample details, research methods, reliability, and validity of measures used), information on the SV measurement, measure of parenting style and/or practice, and a summary of relevant findings. The type of parenting practice assessed was categorized as either rule or nonrule-based parenting practices. The rule based practices were subdivided into: (1) Limits on total time; (2) limits on time of day; (3) content restriction; (4) rules for no viewing during mealtimes; (5) rules for only allowing viewing when supervised by a parent; (6) contingent screentime in which SV can only occur when other tasks, such as homework or exercise, have been completed; and (7) a no-TV policy. There were two nonrule-based practices: (1) Co-viewing (TV/video games), whereby the child had to engage in the behavior at the same time as the parent and (2) parental encouragement to screen view at a particular time of day, and/or encouragement to view particular content. Discussions were held regarding any reporting inconsistencies and a final categorization of each study was agreed. Information on study design, measures (including validity and reliability), analyses, and results were then abstracted. Data abstraction forms were transferred into a purpose-designed database and cross-checked against the original forms to minimize any possibility of errors. ResultsResults are presented in four sections: (1) Summary of studies included in review; (2) tools used to assess parenting styles/practices; (3) quality of measurement tools; and (4) associations between parenting styles/practices and SV. Summary of the Studies in the ReviewThe bibliographic database search yielded 1189 studies, of which 29 articles that were published between 1982 and 2011 satisfied our inclusion and exclusion criteria and were thus included in the final review.27â55 A flow chart presenting how the review process was aligned to the PRISMA guidelines including the selection of studies that met the inclusion criteria is presented in Figure 1. A summary of the studies 27â55 that were included in the review, including the country, participants, the SV measure assessed, and whether parenting styles or practices were measured, is presented in Table 1. Studies were based overwhelmingly upon data from the United States (n=18).27,29,31,32,34,37â41,44,45,47,48,51,52,54,55 The table indicates that previous work has included children and adolescents with the majority of the studies having samples that were largely white.27â30,32â38,40â55 Twenty-seven studies27â44,46â53,55 have assessed parenting practices, from which one study has assessed both parenting styles and practices.43 Two studies assessed parenting styles alone45,54 In terms of participants, 14 studies focused on children,27,28,32,33,35,37,41,43,47,48,50,52â54 eight on adolescents,29,31,39,42,45,46,49,55 and seven on children and adolescents.30,34,36,38,40,44,51 It is noticeable that TV viewing is assessed in all but one of the studies,55 with 1232,34,35,36,38,39,42,43,46,48,52,54 focusing on just TV viewing and 16 focusing on TV viewing and at least one other behavior.27â31,33,37,40,41,44,45,47,49â51,53 The one study that did not consider TV viewing focused solely on video game usage.55
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Arachnid electronic dart board manuals. Table 1. Summary of Studies Included in the Review Including Participant Characteristics, SV Assessment Method, and Whether Parenting Styles (PS) or Parenting Practices (PP) Were Assessed
M-age, mean age; SD, standard deviation; PA, physical activity. Measurement ToolsParenting stylesA summary of the parenting style measures are presented in Table 2. Of the three studies that assessed parenting styles, one was based on child report,43 and two on parent report.45,54 The studies made reference to three external published sources.56â58 Table 2. Summary of Parenting Style Measures
Parenting PracticesA summary of the parenting practices that were assessed in each of the studies is presented in Table 3,27â44,46â53,55 with an overview of the practices presented in Table 4.27â44,46â53,55 As noted above, seven rules were reported, with the following frequencies across studies: (1) Limits on total time (n studies=23); (2) limits on time of day (n=7); (3) content restriction (n=11); (4) mealtime rules (n=2); (5) parental supervision (n=3); (6) contingent SV (n=3); and (7) no-TV policy (n=1). The limit-based rules were subdivided into studies that focused on TV, DVD/VCR, PC, and video games. Limits on total TV time and on the time of day children watch TV were most frequently examined. Two nonrule-based practices were reportedâco-viewing (n=6) and encouragement to view (n=2). Eleven of the studies had child reports of parenting practices, 11 had parent reports, and 5 used both parent and child reports. In many studies, analyses were conducted on a composite exposure variable that consisted of multiple different types of parenting practice and, as such, may not use the same terms that are presented above. Two studies 32,43 made reference to a published scale.59â62 Table 3. Summary of Parenting Practices That Were Assessed
Table 4. Summary of Parenting Practices Assessed across Studies
Quality of Measures UsedOutcome measuresA summary of whether any information was provided on the reliability, internal consistency of the SV outcome measure is shown in Table 5. Of the 29 studies that were included in the review, only 12 (41.4%)27,28,31,39,42,43,45,46,49â52 provided any justification for the selection of the SV outcome. Of the studies that did provide information, five reported information on testâretest reliability based on their own data28,31,46,49,50 and four reported information about criterion validity when compared to another measure reported in the text.28,43,51,52 In total, nine studies 27,28,31,39,42,43,45,46,52 provided a reference to support their scales with 12 different references provided.63â74 Table 5. Reported Reliability and Validity of Screen-Viewing Measures and Link to External Validation/Reliability Information
Parenting Styles and PracticesA summary of whether information was provided on the reliability, factor structure, internal consistency, or reference to an external study is presented in Table 6. Of the three studies that assessed parenting styles,43,45,54 two reported information on the internal consistency of the measures45,54 and one provided information on differences in assessments of the scale that were conducted 2 weeks apart.43 Of the 12 studies that provided any support for selection of the parenting practice measure, five studies directly reported internal consistency information,29,34,36,42,44 five studies referred the reader to data presented in a previous article,32,34,43,49,52 four studies provided reliability information,31,43,49,50 and two studies provided information on the factor structure of the items.33,34 In total, nine external references were provided to support the inclusion of scales.56,57,59â61,75â78 Combining information from Tables 5 and 6 indicates that only six (20.7%) of the studies included in the review provided any information on the reliability, validity, factor structure, or internal consistency of both the outcome and exposure measures.31,42,43,49,50,52 Table 6. Summary of Reliability, Internal Consistency, and Factor Structure for Parenting Style and Practice Measures
TRT, Testâretest reliability; I, internal consistency; F, factor structure; ICC, intraclass correlation; α=Cronbach alpha; k, Cohen measure of agreement. Associations between Parenting and SVParenting stylesThree studies examined the associations between parenting styles and SV.43,45,54 The studies examined different parenting constructs and employed different methodologies making it impossible to ascertain whether there are patterns of association between parenting styles and youth SV. Parenting practicesThe results of the 27 studies that examined parenting practice 27â44,46â53,55 are presented, stratified by behavior (TV, computer, or video) and parenting practice in Table 7. There were 21 studies that examined the association between TV viewing/watching DVDs and parental rules.27â33,35â38,40,42,43,46â50,52,53 The analysis of these studies used analysis of variance, chi-squared analysis, logistic regression, linear regression, and tests of trends. Similarly, the results for TV/DVD co-viewing used Spearman rank order correlations, logistic regression, and linear regression. The variety in analytical frameworks was repeated for each of the other subgroup analyses that are presented in Table 7. Because the studies included in each subgroup are also heterogeneous in terms of participants, setting, and measures, combining the data from across studies to draw any conclusions about patterns in the data is very difficult and a formal meta-analysis is not possible. Similarly, presenting findings as positive, negative, or null associations based on an arbitrary p value of<0.05 could also be misleading because both the type of analysis and sample size affects the p value obtained, which could lead to misinterpretation of potentially important findings.79 Table 7. Summary of Results of Associations between Parenting Practices and Screen-Viewing
ANOVA, analysis of variance; ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; SD, standard deviation; nr, not reported; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SV, screen-viewing. Although we acknowledge the inherent difficulty in combining data from heterogeneous studies, it would be helpful to have an impression of the range of findings and the strength of those findings that have been reported. This overview could be used to identify research gaps that could be further examined in future studies. As such, we have rated the strength of evidence for each of the analyses that were conducted across studies as either: (1) Not reported; (2) little evidence (p>0.05); (3) some evidence (p<0.05); (4) increasing evidence (p<0.01); and (5) strong evidence (p<0.001).79 (Please note that some articles included multiple analyses and all tests were included in this summary.) The percent of studies in each evidence category are then shown graphically in Figure 2 for each of the ten subgroups of studies that were presented in Table 7. The number of studies included in each subgroup is also presented to facilitate an interpretation of how associations may be a function of the number of analyses conducted. A visual inspection of the figure indicates that across the nine different subgroup analyses there are no clear patterns of all strong evidence or all little evidence, suggesting that the evidence for each parenting practice and youth SV is inconsistent. DiscussionThe data presented in this systematic review indicate that there were 29 studies27â55 that examined associations between parenting styles or parenting practices and youth SV that met the review inclusion criteria. Only three 43,45,54 of the 29 studies examined aspects of general parenting constructs in relation to SV. The review has highlighted that the majority of the studies have used SV outcome measures and/or parenting style/practice exposure measures for which there is little or no information about either validity or reliability. Moreover, there is considerable variability in terms of study design, participants, and analytical methods, which makes synthesizing the data from across studies very difficult. However, the general patterns of association and strength of evidence for each parenting practice are mixed, suggesting that while the parenting practices identified (i.e., limits on total time, limits on time of day, content restriction, mealtime rules, parental supervision, contingent SV, no-TV policy, co-viewing, and encouragement) could be important influences on youth SV, it is not currently possible to ascertain what parenting practices interventions should be targeted as part of future SV interventions. Media-related parenting practices were reported by the child, the parent, or by both parent and child. While it is possible to make rational arguments for either child or parent reports based on the age of the child or the topic being assessed, it is important to recognize that child and parent reports provide different information. If the child is sufficiently cognitively advanced to provide âreliableâ information, his or her report will represent their perception of their parent's behaviors. Conversely, the parent report will provide an indication of the behavior that the parent believes they are adopting. The utility of each report may be dependent on how the information will be used.43 For example, a parent's report of their media-parenting strategies might be particularly useful if an intervention focuses on changing parent behavior. Equally, if an intervention incorporates elements of parent-mediated changes to the child's behavior, such as helping the children to identify alternative activities in which to engage when presented with reductions in media opportunities, child reports of parenting practices may be useful. Thus, when considering the selection of measures or the creation of new measures, there is a need to be clear about how the media parenting information will be used. Implications for Future Development of SV Parenting MeasuresWe identified only three studies that assessed aspects of the general parenting style in relation to SV.43,45,54 Parenting styles are based on sound psychological literature and theoretical frameworks, and, as such, the measures used benefit from more clearly defined and separable constructs supported by empirical evidence.18 It is important to note, however, that only a very limited range of general parenting constructs have been examined in relation to SV. As such, there is a need to identify the key aspects of general parenting that might be important influences on youth SV. This review has captured information on media parenting practices that have been assessed in the literature. The studies included in the review were conducted between 1982 and 2011, and SV behaviors and media parenting practices have changed significantly over this time period. For example, it was recently reported that many 10- to 11-year-old children engage in multi-SV in which they are often using two or three SV devices, such as a computer, phone, and TV, at the same time.80 The parenting practices that a parent adopts in relation to these multiscreen viewing options is likely to be very different from those that might have been conducted 10 years ago, when viewing was largely confined to a fixed television or computer screen. Thus, in addition to developing more refined measures that can more reliably assess the media practices that were identified in this review, there is also a need to understand contemporary media parenting practices. Therefore, qualitative work with parents is required to examine these issues before developing future measures. Current information on parenting practices and SV is limited by a lack of valid and/or reliable measures. It has been suggested by Aiken that the âthe value of scientific data depends on the precision with which the variables under consideration are observed and measured.â 81 The data presented in this article would suggest that our current understanding of parental factors and SV is limited by the assessment methods. Many studies identified in the present review are limited by measures of exposure (i.e., parent styles or practices) and/or outcome (i.e., SV) that lack sufficient evidence for their reliability or validity. Although a wide range of SV parenting practices have been examined in relation to youth SV, there is little consistency in the terms used to define SV parenting practices. For example, the term ârulesâ is used to cover a large range of different parenting practices (e.g., limits on time, limits on content or limits on time of day). The measurement of parenting practices is therefore at risk of the âJingle-Jangleâ fallacy82 in which two different constructs are labeled similarly (e.g., different/combinations of rules being generically termed ârulesâ) and thus incorrectly used interchangeably (Jingle fallacy) or where two practices carry different labels (e.g., âlimit settingâ/ârestrictive mediationâ) but actually reflect the same construct (Jangle fallacy). Thus, there is a need for agreement on common terminology that is used to describe parenting practices. The tools that are used to assess these specific practices also need to be developed. Overall, the information yielded by this systematic review indicates that the measurement of SV parenting practices would benefit from more systematic, extensive, and transparent scale development and validation research, with particular focus on construct definition. This process could begin by achieving consensus on the definitions for the seven rule and two nonrule-based parenting practices that have been identified in this review. Qualitative work should then be conducted with parents and children to identify any additional parenting practices that have not been previously assessed. At this stage, it is critical to be clear about whether the new scale is intended to be parent or child reported and the rationale for that decision. An initial item pool should then be developed before experts (e.g., academics, parents, and practitioners) are consulted to test the item content relevance83 and guide item refinement. Statistical approaches to scale validation (e.g., exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis) can then be employed before constructs are labeled. It is also important to note that as scale development is an ongoing process in which evidence for the validity and reliability of scale scores is amassed,84 researchers should continue to explore and report the psychometric properties of the scales they use. Therefore, we propose that researchers should consider the following four recommendations when considering the development of new SV parenting measures. ![]()
Strengths and LimitationsThe major strength of this article is the systematic review of the literature. It is important to recognize, however, that the findings are limited by the quality of the studies included in the review. The review examined parent practices, parent styles, and parent mediation as separate items. However, we are aware that in certain circumstances parent styles could moderate the effect of parenting practices. This article did not explore such relationships and is thus unable to comment on any such associations. The searches were also only conducted in English and therefore it is possible that further evidence in non-English language journals, which could have added to the body of literature, has been missed in this review. ConclusionsThis systematic review has identified 29 studies that have examined parenting styles and practices in relation to youth SV.27â55 The studies include child-reported measures, parent-reported measures, and dual-reported measures. Data have been collected on children and adolescents, and a wide range of analytical methods have been used. The heterogeneous nature of the study designs prevents a formal synthesis of findings. However, the data indicate that a wide range of measures have been used to assess SV parenting practices, but in general there is a lack of information about the validity and reliability of the tools. No study has assessed parenting styles or practices in relation to multiscreen viewing. There is a need for new measures that assess a range of media parenting practices that are relevant to multiple forms of SV and have been shown to reliably assess the targeted practice in the participant group. AcknowledgmentsThis report is research arising from a Career Development Fellowship (to Dr. Jago) supported by the National Institute for Health Research. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the National Health Service (NHS), the National Institute for Health Research, or the Department of Health. The preconference to the 2012 International Society for Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (ISBNPA) annual meeting, âParenting Measurement: Current Status and Consensus Reportsâ and resulting manuscripts were made possible due to funding from the United States Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service (USDA/ARS 2012-68001-19285) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health (R13HL114262). Author Disclosure StatementWe have no competing interests to declare. References
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Helpful, if not essential, collection of literary selections which are directed to AP and college level literature classes. The critical analysis questions following each selection are insightful and flexible in terms of writing assignments and group discussion.
A neat and tidy collection of literature for AP students. Nice balance of classic and contemporary.
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